#lang scribble/doc
@(require scribble/manual "guide-utils.rkt"
          (for-label racket/flonum
                     racket/unsafe/ops
                     racket/performance-hint))

@title[#:tag "performance"]{Performance}

@section-index["benchmarking"]
@section-index["speed"]

Alan Perlis famously quipped ``Lisp programmers know the value of
everything and the cost of nothing.'' A Racket programmer knows, for
example, that a @racket[lambda] anywhere in a program produces a value
that is closed over its lexical environment---but how much does
allocating that value cost? While most programmers have a reasonable
grasp of the cost of various operations and data structures at the
machine level, the gap between the Racket language model and the
underlying computing machinery can be quite large.

In this chapter, we narrow the gap by explaining details of the
Racket compiler and run-time system and how they affect the run-time
and memory performance of Racket code.

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@section[#:tag "DrRacket-perf"]{Performance in DrRacket}

By default, DrRacket instruments programs for debugging, and
debugging instrumentation can significantly degrade performance for
some programs. Even when debugging is disabled through the
@onscreen{Choose Language...} dialog's @onscreen{Show Details} panel,
the @onscreen{Preserve stacktrace} checkbox is clicked by default,
which also affects performance. Disabling debugging and stacktrace
preservation provides performance results that are more consistent
with running in plain @exec{racket}.

Even so, DrRacket and programs developed within DrRacket use the same
Racket virtual machine, so garbage collection times (see
@secref["gc-perf"]) may be longer in DrRacket than when a program is
run by itself, and DrRacket threads may impede execution of program
threads. For the most reliable timing results for a program, run in
plain @exec{racket} instead of in the DrRacket development environment.
Non-interactive mode should be used instead of the
@tech["REPL"] to benefit from the module system. See
@secref["modules-performance"] for details.

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@section[#:tag "JIT"]{The Bytecode and Just-in-Time (JIT) Compilers}

Every definition or expression to be evaluated by Racket is compiled
to an internal bytecode format. In interactive mode, this compilation
occurs automatically and on-the-fly. Tools like @exec{raco make} and
@exec{raco setup} marshal compiled bytecode to a file, so that you do
not have to compile from source every time that you run a
program. (Most of the time required to compile a file is actually in
macro expansion; generating bytecode from fully expanded code is
relatively fast.) See @secref["compile"] for more information on
generating bytecode files.

The bytecode compiler applies all standard optimizations, such as
constant propagation, constant folding, inlining, and dead-code
elimination. For example, in an environment where @racket[+] has its
usual binding, the expression @racket[(let ([x 1] [y (lambda () 4)]) (+
1 (y)))] is compiled the same as the constant @racket[5].

On some platforms, bytecode is further compiled to native code via a
@deftech{just-in-time} or @deftech{JIT} compiler. The @tech{JIT}
compiler substantially speeds programs that execute tight loops,
arithmetic on small integers, and arithmetic on inexact real
numbers. Currently, @tech{JIT} compilation is supported for x86,
x86_64 (a.k.a. AMD64), and 32-bit PowerPC processors. The @tech{JIT}
compiler can be disabled via the @racket[eval-jit-enabled] parameter
or the @DFlag{no-jit}/@Flag{j} command-line flag for @exec{racket}.

The @tech{JIT} compiler works incrementally as functions are applied,
but the @tech{JIT} compiler makes only limited use of run-time
information when compiling procedures, since the code for a given
module body or @racket[lambda] abstraction is compiled only once. The
@tech{JIT}'s granularity of compilation is a single procedure body,
not counting the bodies of any lexically nested procedures. The
overhead for @tech{JIT} compilation is normally so small that it is
difficult to detect.

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@section[#:tag "modules-performance"]{Modules and Performance}

The module system aids optimization by helping to ensure that
identifiers have the usual bindings. That is, the @racket[+] provided
by @racketmodname[racket/base] can be recognized by the compiler and
inlined, which is especially important for @tech{JIT}-compiled code.
In contrast, in a traditional interactive Scheme system, the top-level
@racket[+] binding might be redefined, so the compiler cannot assume a
fixed @racket[+] binding (unless special flags or declarations
are used to compensate for the lack of a module system).

Even in the top-level environment, importing with @racket[require]
enables some inlining optimizations. Although a @racket[+] definition
at the top level might shadow an imported @racket[+], the shadowing
definition applies only to expressions evaluated later.

Within a module, inlining and constant-propagation optimizations take
additional advantage of the fact that definitions within a module
cannot be mutated when no @racket[set!] is visible at compile
time. Such optimizations are unavailable in the top-level
environment. Although this optimization within modules is important
for performance, it hinders some forms of interactive development and
exploration. The @racket[compile-enforce-module-constants] parameter
disables the @tech{JIT} compiler's assumptions about module
definitions when interactive exploration is more important. See
@secref["module-set"] for more information.

The compiler may inline functions or propagate constants across module
boundaries. To avoid generating too much code in the case of function
inlining, the compiler is conservative when choosing candidates for
cross-module inlining; see @secref["func-call-performance"] for
information on providing inlining hints to the compiler.

The later section @secref["letrec-performance"] provides some
additional caveats concerning inlining of module bindings.

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@section[#:tag "func-call-performance"]{Function-Call Optimizations}

When the compiler detects a function call to an immediately visible
function, it generates more efficient code than for a generic call,
especially for tail calls. For example, given the program

@racketblock[
(letrec ([odd (lambda (x) 
                (if (zero? x) 
                    #f 
                    (even (sub1 x))))] 
         [even (lambda (x) 
                 (if (zero? x) 
                     #t 
                     (odd (sub1 x))))]) 
  (odd 40000000))
]

the compiler can detect the @racket[odd]--@racket[even] loop and
produce code that runs much faster via loop unrolling and related
optimizations.

Within a module form, @racket[define]d variables are lexically scoped
like @racket[letrec] bindings, and definitions within a module
therefore permit call optimizations, so

@racketblock[
(define (odd x) ....)
(define (even x) ....)
]

within a module would perform the same as the @racket[letrec] version.

For direct calls to functions with keyword arguments, the compiler can
typically check keyword arguments statically and generate a direct
call to a non-keyword variant of the function, which reduces the
run-time overhead of keyword checking. This optimization applies only
for keyword-accepting procedures that are bound with @racket[define].

For immediate calls to functions that are small enough, the compiler
may inline the function call by replacing the call with the body of
the function. In addition to the size of the target function's body,
the compiler's heuristics take into account the amount of inlining
already performed at the call site and whether the called function
itself calls functions other than simple primitive operations. When a
module is compiled, some functions defined at the module level are
determined to be candidates for inlining into other modules; normally,
only trivial functions are considered candidates for cross-module
inlining, but a programmer can wrap a function definition with
@racket[begin-encourage-inline] to encourage inlining
of the function.

Primitive operations like @racket[pair?], @racket[car], and
@racket[cdr] are inlined at the machine-code level by the @tech{JIT}
compiler. See also the later section @secref["fixnums+flonums"] for
information about inlined arithmetic operations.

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@section{Mutation and Performance}

Using @racket[set!] to mutate a variable can lead to bad
performance. For example, the microbenchmark

@racketmod[
racket/base

(define (subtract-one x)
  (set! x (sub1 x))
  x)

(time
  (let loop ([n 4000000])
    (if (zero? n)
        'done
        (loop (subtract-one n)))))
]

runs much more slowly than the equivalent

@racketmod[
racket/base

(define (subtract-one x)
  (sub1 x))

(time
  (let loop ([n 4000000])
    (if (zero? n)
        'done
        (loop (subtract-one n)))))
]

In the first variant, a new location is allocated for @racket[x] on
every iteration, leading to poor performance. A more clever compiler
could unravel the use of @racket[set!] in the first example, but since
mutation is discouraged (see @secref["using-set!"]), the compiler's
effort is spent elsewhere.

More significantly, mutation can obscure bindings where inlining and
constant-propagation might otherwise apply. For example, in

@racketblock[
(let ([minus1 #f])
  (set! minus1 sub1)
  (let loop ([n 4000000])
    (if (zero? n)
        'done
        (loop (minus1 n)))))
]

the @racket[set!] obscures the fact that @racket[minus1] is just
another name for the built-in @racket[sub1].

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@section[#:tag "letrec-performance"]{@racket[letrec] Performance}

When @racket[letrec] is used to bind only procedures and literals,
then the compiler can treat the bindings in an optimal manner,
compiling uses of the bindings efficiently. When other kinds of
bindings are mixed with procedures, the compiler may be less able to
determine the control flow.

For example,

@racketblock[
(letrec ([loop (lambda (x) 
                (if (zero? x) 
                    'done
                    (loop (next x))))] 
         [junk (display loop)]
         [next (lambda (x) (sub1 x))])
  (loop 40000000))
]

likely compiles to less efficient code than

@racketblock[
(letrec ([loop (lambda (x) 
                (if (zero? x) 
                    'done
                    (loop (next x))))] 
         [next (lambda (x) (sub1 x))])
  (loop 40000000))
]

In the first case, the compiler likely does not know that
@racket[display] does not call @racket[loop]. If it did, then
@racket[loop] might refer to @racket[next] before the binding is
available.

This caveat about @racket[letrec] also applies to definitions of
functions and constants as internal definitions or in modules. A
definition sequence in a module body is analogous to a sequence of
@racket[letrec] bindings, and non-constant expressions in a module
body can interfere with the optimization of references to later
bindings.

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@section[#:tag "fixnums+flonums"]{Fixnum and Flonum Optimizations}

A @deftech{fixnum} is a small exact integer. In this case, ``small''
depends on the platform. For a 32-bit machine, numbers that can be
expressed in 30 bits plus a sign bit are represented as fixnums. On a
64-bit machine, 62 bits plus a sign bit are available.

A @deftech{flonum} is used to represent any inexact real number. They
correspond to 64-bit IEEE floating-point numbers on all platforms.

Inlined fixnum and flonum arithmetic operations are among the most
important advantages of the @tech{JIT} compiler. For example, when
@racket[+] is applied to two arguments, the generated machine code
tests whether the two arguments are fixnums, and if so, it uses the
machine's instruction to add the numbers (and check for overflow). If
the two numbers are not fixnums, then it checks whether
both are flonums; in that case, the machine's floating-point
operations are used directly. For functions that take any number of
arguments, such as @racket[+], inlining works for two or more
arguments (except for @racket[-], whose one-argument case is also
inlined) when the arguments are either all fixnums or all flonums.

Flonums are typically @defterm{boxed}, which means that memory is
allocated to hold every result of a flonum computation. Fortunately,
the generational garbage collector (described later in
@secref["gc-perf"]) makes allocation for short-lived results
reasonably cheap. Fixnums, in contrast are never boxed, so they are
typically cheap to use.

@margin-note{See @secref["effective-futures"] for an example use of
@tech{flonum}-specific operations.}

The @racketmodname[racket/flonum] library provides flonum-specific
operations, and combinations of flonum operations allow the @tech{JIT}
compiler to generate code that avoids boxing and unboxing intermediate
results. Besides results within immediate combinations,
flonum-specific results that are bound with @racket[let] and consumed
by a later flonum-specific operation are unboxed within temporary
storage. Finally, the compiler can detect some flonum-valued loop
accumulators and avoid boxing of the accumulator. The bytecode
decompiler (see @secref[#:doc '(lib "scribblings/raco/raco.scrbl")
"decompile"]) annotates combinations where the JIT can avoid boxes with
@racketidfont{#%flonum}, @racketidfont{#%as-flonum}, and
@racketidfont{#%from-flonum}.

@margin-note{Unboxing of local bindings and accumualtors is not
supported by the JIT for PowerPC.}

The @racketmodname[racket/unsafe/ops] library provides unchecked
fixnum- and flonum-specific operations. Unchecked flonum-specific
operations allow unboxing, and sometimes they allow the compiler to
reorder expressions to improve performance. See also
@secref["unchecked-unsafe"], especially the warnings about unsafety.

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@section[#:tag "unchecked-unsafe"]{Unchecked, Unsafe Operations}

The @racketmodname[racket/unsafe/ops] library provides functions that
are like other functions in @racketmodname[racket/base], but they
assume (instead of checking) that provided arguments are of the right
type. For example, @racket[unsafe-vector-ref] accesses an element from
a vector without checking that its first argument is actually a vector
and without checking that the given index is in bounds. For tight
loops that use these functions, avoiding checks can sometimes speed
the computation, though the benefits vary for different unchecked
functions and different contexts.

Beware that, as ``unsafe'' in the library and function names suggest,
misusing the exports of @racketmodname[racket/unsafe/ops] can lead to
crashes or memory corruption.

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@section[#:tag "gc-perf"]{Memory Management}

The Racket implementation is available in two variants: @deftech{3m} and
@deftech{CGC}. The @tech{3m} variant uses a modern,
@deftech{generational garbage collector} that makes allocation
relatively cheap for short-lived objects. The @tech{CGC} variant uses
a @deftech{conservative garbage collector} which facilitates
interaction with C code at the expense of both precision and speed for
Racket memory management. The 3m variant is the standard one.

Although memory allocation is reasonably cheap, avoiding allocation
altogether is normally faster. One particular place where allocation
can be avoided sometimes is in @deftech{closures}, which are the
run-time representation of functions that contain free variables.
For example,

@racketblock[
(let loop ([n 40000000] [prev-thunk (lambda () #f)])
  (if (zero? n)
      (prev-thunk)
      (loop (sub1 n)
            (lambda () n))))
]

allocates a closure on every iteration, since @racket[(lambda () n)]
effectively saves @racket[n].

The compiler can eliminate many closures automatically. For example,
in

@racketblock[
(let loop ([n 40000000] [prev-val #f])
  (let ([prev-thunk (lambda () n)])
    (if (zero? n)
        prev-val
        (loop (sub1 n) (prev-thunk)))))
]

no closure is ever allocated for @racket[prev-thunk], because its only
application is visible, and so it is inlined. Similarly, in 

@racketblock[
(let n-loop ([n 400000])
  (if (zero? n)
      'done
      (let m-loop ([m 100])
        (if (zero? m)
            (n-loop (sub1 n))
            (m-loop (sub1 m))))))
]

then the expansion of the @racket[let] form to implement
@racket[m-loop] involves a closure over @racket[n], but the compiler
automatically converts the closure to pass itself @racket[n] as an
argument instead.

@section{Reachability and Garbage Collection}

In general, Racket re-uses the storage for a value when the
garbage collector can prove that the object is unreachable from
any other (reachable) value. Reachability is a low-level, 
abstraction breaking concept (and thus one must understand many
details of the runtime system's implementation to accurate predicate
precisely when values are reachable from each other),
but generally speaking one value is reachable from a second one when 
there is some operation to recover the original value from the second
one.

To help programmers understand when an object is no longer reachable and its
storage can be reused,
Racket provides @racket[make-weak-box] and @racket[weak-box-value],
the creator and accessor for a one-record struct that the garbage
collector treats specially. An object inside a weak box does not count
as reachable, and so @racket[weak-box-value] might return the object
inside the box, but it might also return @racket[#f] to indicate
that the object was otherwise unreachable and garbage collected.
Note that unless a garbage collection actually occurs, the value will
remain inside the weak box, even if it is unreachable.

For example, consider this program:
@racketmod[racket
           (struct fish (weight color) #:transparent)
           (define f (fish 7 'blue))
           (define b (make-weak-box f))
           (printf "b has ~s\n" (weak-box-value b))
           (collect-garbage)
           (printf "b has ~s\n" (weak-box-value b))]
It will print @litchar{b has #(struct:fish 7 blue)} twice because the
definition of @racket[f] still holds onto the fish. If the program
were this, however:
@racketmod[racket
           (struct fish (weight color) #:transparent)
           (define f (fish 7 'blue))
           (define b (make-weak-box f))
           (printf "b has ~s\n" (weak-box-value b))
           (set! f #f)
           (collect-garbage)
           (printf "b has ~s\n" (weak-box-value b))]
the second printout will be @litchar{b has #f} because
no reference to the fish exists (other than the one in the box).

As a first approximation, all values in Racket must be allocated and will
demonstrate behavior similar to the fish above. 
There are a number of exceptions, however:
@itemlist[@item{Small integers (recognizable with @racket[fixnum?]) are
                always available without explicit
                allocation. From the perspective of the garbage collector
                and weak boxes, their storage is never reclaimed. (Due to
                clever representation techniques, however, their storage
                does not count towards the space that Racket uses.
                That is, they are effectively free.)}
         @item{Procedures where
               the compiler can see all of their call sites may never be
               allocated at all (as discussed above). 
               Similar optimizations may also eliminate 
               the allocation for other kinds of values.}
         @item{Interned symbols are allocated only once (per place). A table inside
               Racket tracks this allocation so a symbol may not become garbage
               because that table holds onto it.}
         @item{Reachability is only approximate with the CGC collector (i.e.,
               a value may appear reachable to that collector when there is,
               in fact, no way to reach it anymore.}]

@section{Weak Boxes and Testing}

One important use of weak boxes is in testing that some abstraction properly 
releases storage for data it no longer needs, but there is a gotcha that 
can easily cause such test cases to pass improperly. 

Imagine you're designing a data structure that needs to
hold onto some value temporarily but then should clear a field or
somehow break a link to avoid referencing that value so it can be
collected. Weak boxes are a good way to test that your data structure
properly clears the value. This is, you might write a test case
that builds a value, extracts some other value from it
(that you hope becomes unreachable), puts the extracted value into a weak-box,
and then checks to see if the value disappears from the box.

This code is one attempt to follow that pattern, but it has a subtle bug:
@racketmod[racket
           (let* ([fishes (list (fish 8 'red)
                                (fish 7 'blue))]
                  [wb (make-weak-box (list-ref fishes 0))])
             (collect-garbage)
             (printf "still there? ~s\n" (weak-box-value wb)))]
Specifically, it will show that the weak box is empty, but not
beacause @racket[_fishes] no longer holds onto the value, but
because @racket[_fishes] itself is not reachable anymore!

Change the program to this one:
@racketmod[racket
           (let* ([fishes (list (fish 8 'red)
                                (fish 7 'blue))]
                  [wb (make-weak-box (list-ref fishes 0))])
             (collect-garbage)
             (printf "still there? ~s\n" (weak-box-value wb))
             (printf "fishes is ~s\n" fishes))]
and now we see the expected result. The difference is that last
occurrence of the variable @racket[_fishes]. That constitutes
a reference to the list, ensuring that the list is not itself
garbage collected, and thus the red fish is not either.

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@include-section["futures.scrbl"]
@include-section["places.scrbl"]
@include-section["distributed.scrbl"]
